The Scam and Spam Call Epidemic: An Inside Look

The shrill ring of an unknown number has become a modern-day gamble—answer it, and you might be greeted not by a friend or colleague, but by a scammer or spammer lurking behind the line. From fake insurance pitches to elaborate banking frauds, scam calls and spam calls have evolved into one of the most persistent digital nuisances of our time. What makes them more dangerous is not just their frequency, but the sophistication with which they exploit personal data, loopholes in telecom services, and unsuspecting consumers. And how do these callers get their information from?

The scams themselves vary in form and impact: fraudulent banking calls, fake loan offers, lottery schemes, phishing attempts, and impersonation frauds are just a few. Each scheme targets not only the consumer’s wallet but also their trust, sometimes leaving behind scars that are financial, emotional, and psychological.

Governments and regulators have tried to keep pace through consumer protection laws, data privacy regimes, and telecom regulations. Banks and financial institutions, too, have devised redressal mechanisms, but questions remain—are these enough to shield consumers from the mental and financial toll of such frauds? And perhaps more critically, is there a support system in place for victims who suffer long-term distress?

This article delves into the overview of this industry’s intricate web: where spammers get their information,who shares it,and the entities involved in facilitating these calls. We also examine the various types of scams, the legal frameworks in place to combat them, and the actions taken by banks and governments to protect and assist consumers. Understanding these elements is crucial for individuals seeking to safeguard themselves in this increasingly vulnerable digital landscape.

The Data Trail: Where Do Spammers & Scammers Get Consumer Information?

At the heart of every scam call lies one fundamental question—how did the caller get your number, and worse, how did they know so much about you? The answer lies in the vast and often invisible ecosystem of data collection, leaks, and trading.

Data Brokerage

Parallel to outright breaches, there exists a thriving industry of data brokers who legally (and sometimes questionably) collect, aggregate, and sell consumer information through legitimate channels such as APIs. This practice fuels the data brokerage ecosystem, where consumer information is exchanged, aggregated, and monetized, sometimes straddling the line between lawful and exploitative use.

A striking example came with the Cambridge Analytica scandal (2018), where data of millions of Facebook users was harvested under the guise of “research” and later used for targeted political advertising.^[1]

While not a direct scam call case, it revealed how easily consumer data can be weaponized once it enters the hands of third parties. In India, investigations have shown how certain call centers purchase bulk data from intermediaries to cold-call.

Also read: APIs: Powering your Business or Putting it at Risk?

Digital Risks/Hidden Costs Online

In the digital economy, ordinary interactions like—downloading an app, signing up for a discount, or shopping online—come with hidden costs. In 2020, researchers flagged that popular apps such as Truecaller^[2] and UC Browser had faced scrutiny for data-sharing practices.^[3]

E-commerce platforms, too, are vulnerable: in 2022, Domino’s India reportedly suffered a breach exposing 18 crore orders, with customer names, addresses, and phone numbers surfacing on hacking forums. 

These leaks give scammers not just phone numbers but also contextual information—such as names, addresses, email IDs, demographic details, transaction history, or even past interactions with services, which makes fraudulent calls appear more convincing. By tailoring their pitch with specific references, scammers can more easily gain the trust of unsuspecting individuals, increasing the likelihood of successful deception.^[4]

Massive Data Breaches

Massive data breaches at telecom companies, banks, e-commerce giants, and even government databases have created a goldmine of personal information readily available to fraudsters. In 2018, for instance, the Aadhaar database containing sensitive details of over a billion Indians was reportedly compromised, with access to individual records allegedly sold online for as little as ₹500.^[5]

The Equifax (a US AI company) breach of 2017 exposed personal and financial data of 147 million people, becoming a textbook example of how corporate lapses fuel identity theft and scam operations.^[6] In India, recurring leaks from customer databases of telecom operators and banks have repeatedly placed phone numbers and financial details in circulation for fraudsters to exploit.

The Illusion of Consent

Consent in its current form is less about choice and more about compulsion. Most users click “I Agree” without fully understanding how their data will be used. The Cambridge Analytica case highlighted how vague and manipulative consent mechanisms enable companies to harvest personal information at scale. This weak consent model allows businesses to profit from consumer data with minimal accountability, blurring the line between legitimate marketing and intrusive exploitation.

Dark Web

Beyond the surface web, personal data fuels an underground economy. On dark web forums, leaked phone numbers, email addresses, credit card details, and even entire identity packages (“fullz”) are sold to fraudsters at cheap rates. In 2021, cybersecurity researchers discovered that details of 3.5 million Indian Mobikwik users were being sold on the dark web.^[7] For scammers, such marketplaces eliminate the need to manually build contact lists—enabling them to target thousands of victims with precision.

Together, these layers of leaks, brokers, platforms, weak consent, and the dark web form the invisible supply chain that powers scam and spam calls. Every ring of a scammer’s phone is backed by these furtive practices of extracting personal data, where privacy is currency and consumers are rarely aware of the trade.

The Machinery Behind the Calls: Who Executes Scam Operations?

Behind every scam or spam call is not just an individual trickster but a complex network of entities that range from small-scale operators to global fraud syndicates. Understanding who actually makes these calls, and how they are organized, reveals the scale and sophistication of the problem.

Call Centers and Outsourced Operations:

Many nuisance calls, particularly those pushing unsolicited marketing for loans, credit cards, or insurance originate from call centers. Some of these centers operate legitimately but skirt the boundaries of consent, using purchased or leaked databases to target consumers. Others function as outright fraudulent operations, posing as banks, government agencies, or technical support services. 

One of the most notorious examples came in 2016, when Indian police raided several call centres in Thane, Maharashtra, for running IRS impersonation scams targeting U.S. citizens—defrauding victims of millions of dollars.^[9]

Outsourcing, while a legitimate business strategy for cost reduction and efficiency, can unintentionally enable fraudulent activities when oversight is weak. Many companies outsource customer support, sales, and telemarketing functions to third-party vendors in countries like India or the Philippines. These outsourced firms often have access to large volumes of personal data—either through official contracts or grey-market channels.

In some cases, rogue employees or entire operations misuse this access to engage in scams, such as posing as representatives of banks or tech companies. The complex web of subcontracting and limited cross-border enforcement makes it difficult to track accountability, allowing fraudulent call centres to operate under the cover of legitimate outsourcing.

Fraud Syndicates and Organized Networks

Scam calls are run by organized syndicates that function much like businesses. These groups purchase bulk data, train callers to follow scripts, and even provide technological support for caller ID spoofing or VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) masking. Victims often hear a convincing “bank officer” or “tax agent,” but behind the voice is a structured operation with managers, recruiters, and profit-sharing systems. 

In 2019, the U.S. The Department of Justice indicted 80 individuals, many based in Nigeria, for their role in an international fraud ring involving phone and email scams, showing how such networks operate across multiple countries.^[10] Some syndicates diversify their schemes, running everything from investment frauds to phishing campaigns simultaneously, effectively industrializing deception.

Individuals and Lone Operators

Not all scams are industrial in scale. Individual fraudsters, armed with leaked data and cheap telecom tools, can set up micro-operations to target small groups of people. These lone actors usually engage in simpler frauds, such as lottery scams or impersonation calls, but even at this scale, the damage can be devastating for victims who lose savings to a single persuasive phone call.

From Nuisance to Crime: Levels of Operation:

The ecosystem of scam calls spans a wide spectrum. At the lowest level are nuisance telemarketing calls, which—though irritating—often operate in a regulatory grey zone. The mid-level includes aggressive telemarketing that crosses into misrepresentation or unauthorized data use. At the highest level sit full-fledged fraud networks that systematically extract money and personal information from victims. 

What unites these levels is their reliance on consumer vulnerability and the commodification of personal data.

Similarly, enforcement agencies in the UK and U.S. have coordinated with Indian authorities to shut down scam call hubs operating offshore. Cross-border operations benefit from VoIP services, caller ID spoofing, and the anonymity of digital payments, making it difficult for authorities to pin down perpetrators.

Together, call centers, syndicates, and individual fraudsters create a layered architecture of deception. Whether driven by nuisance marketing or sophisticated cybercrime, the execution of scam calls shows one thing clearly: this is no longer an informal practice but a global industry, often more organized than the systems designed to stop it. 

The Many Faces of Fraud: Common Scams and Their Tactics

Scam calls are not uniform in their methods or goals. Fraudsters adapt their tactics depending on the target, the information available, and the loopholes they can exploit. From financial deception to psychological manipulation, these scams represent a spectrum of fraudulent practices designed to erode trust and extract value from unsuspecting consumers.

Banking and Credit Card Scams

Perhaps the most common and damaging scams involve impersonation of banks or credit card companies. Fraudsters often claim to be bank officials, warning consumers about suspicious activity on their accounts, and then tricking them into sharing one-time passwords (OTPs) or CVV numbers. 

In 2022, the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) issued multiple alerts warning consumers against OTP and KYC-update scams after a surge in cases where fraudsters siphoned off money by posing as bank representatives.^[12] These scams prey on consumers’ trust in financial institutions and their fear of financial loss.

Loan, Insurance, and Investment Frauds

Scam calls offering “instant loans,” “guaranteed insurance benefits,” or “high-return investment schemes” have become increasingly common. Victims are lured with promises of low interest rates, policy bonuses, or lucrative opportunities. Once hooked, they are asked to make an upfront payment—either as “processing fees” or “premium deposits”—after which the caller disappears.

In 2021, the Delhi Police’s Cyber Cell busted a fake loan racket that defrauded thousands of people by offering quick personal loans through calls and apps, collecting money as “processing fees” without ever disbursing loans.^[13] Investment scams, too, have grown sophisticated; in 2022, SEBI flagged multiple unregistered investment advisors for cold-calling investors and luring them into fraudulent trading schemes.^[14]

Lottery and Prize Scams

Another enduring form of fraud is the “You’ve won a prize!” call. Victims are told they have won a lottery, lucky draw, or contest they never entered. To claim the prize, they are asked to pay “processing charges” or “customs duties.” 

In India, one of the most infamous examples was the fake Kaun Banega Crorepati (KBC) lottery scam, where victims across states received calls and WhatsApp messages claiming they had won ₹25 lakh, but were asked to transfer money to claim the prize.^[15]

Globally, lottery scams have been prominent in the UK and US, often linked to fraud networks in West Africa.^[16] While these may sound implausible, the psychological lure of a life-changing reward makes them highly effective—especially among vulnerable groups.

Phishing and Impersonation Scams

Phishing calls rely on impersonation. Fraudsters pose as government officials, tax officers, or law enforcement agents to create a sense of authority. In some cases, victims are threatened with arrest, suspension of services, or penalties unless they immediately comply with instructions. 

One of the most high-profile cases was the IRS impersonation scam in the United States, where thousands of Americans were defrauded by callers based in India posing as tax officers—prompting joint enforcement crackdowns in 2016.^[17] During the COVID-19 pandemic, impersonation scams surged in India, with fraudsters posing as health officials and vaccination helpline staff to extract sensitive data and money.^[18]

Psychological Manipulation and Fear Tactics

Across all scam types, one constant is psychological manipulation. Scammers use fear, urgency, or greed to cloud a victim’s judgment. They may create panic by claiming fraudulent transactions have been detected, or urgency by offering “limited time” loan approvals. In 2020, Mumbai Police reported multiple cases where fraudsters posing as bank managers threatened immediate account freezing unless the customer shared OTPs or PINs.^[19]

In other cases, scammers built trust through repeated calls, slowly gaining access to personal information before striking. More recently, fraudsters have employed emotionally manipulative tactics by posing as police officers and falsely claiming, “Your son is in custody”, prompting parents to urgently send money in panic. The blend of fear and persuasion makes these scams particularly difficult to resist—even for cautious individuals.

Together, these scams represent not just isolated incidents but a playbook of deception, evolving with technology and consumer behavior. By exploiting both digital vulnerabilities and human psychology, fraudsters ensure that no phone call can be taken at face value.

Also read: Victims of Cybercrimes: Are they protected enough?

Legal and Regulatory Framework

Scam and spam calls thrive not merely because of technological loopholes but also because of gaps in enforcement and regulatory reach. A closer look at existing laws reveals that while India has crafted legal tools to address fraud and nuisance communication, fragmented enforcement often leaves consumers inadequately protected. India’s legal framework addresses scam and spam calls through a patchwork of statutes and sectoral regulations:

Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act): The IT Act penalises identity theft, phishing, and unauthorized access to personal data under provisions such as Sections 43A, 66C, and 66D. These provisions are often invoked in cyber fraud cases, including scam calls involving impersonation and digital payments.

Indian Penal Code, 1860 (IPC): Fraudulent calls can attract charges under cheating (Section 415), criminal breach of trust (Section 406), and impersonation (Section 419). In serious cases, syndicates can also face conspiracy charges under Section 120B.

Consumer Protection Act, 2019: The Act protects consumers against unfair trade practices, including deceptive marketing and misrepresentation, which are central to scam call operations. The Central Consumer Protection Authority (CCPA) has powers to investigate misleading practices.

Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Regulations: To combat unsolicited commercial communications, TRAI introduced the Telecom Commercial Communications Customer Preference Regulations, 2018, mandating telemarketer registration and using blockchain-based systems to track promotional messages.

Despite these laws and crackdowns, several challenges persist: The IT Act, IPC, and TRAI regulations often overlap but are not harmonized, creating procedural delays.

Many scam calls originate outside India, limiting law enforcement’s reach, Telecom operators struggle to monitor unregistered telemarketers, and cybercrime cells are often under-resourced compared to the scale of fraud. Unlike GDPR-style regimes, India has historically been weak on consumer consent in data collection, allowing data brokers to feed scam networks.

The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 is a step forward but remains untested as it introduces long-awaited safeguards for individual privacy and seeks to align India with global data protection standards. At the same time, uncertainties remain around its enforcement framework, institutional capacity, and the extent to which it will balance state interests with individual rights. Until these provisions are tested in practice—whether through regulatory implementation or judicial scrutiny—the real impact of the Act will continue to be a matter of speculation.

Similarly most laws address scams after fraud has occurred, with limited provisions for restitution or mental health support for victims.

Ultimately, while India’s laws provide a foundation to combat scam calls, enforcement gaps, jurisdictional limits, and regulatory loopholes mean fraudsters continue to operate with alarming ease.

Institutional Responses: Banks and Government

While individuals often bear the immediate brunt of scam and spam calls, institutional mechanisms exist to provide redress, limit financial losses, and enforce accountability. These responses come primarily from banks, telecom regulators, and government agencies, each playing a role in a fragmented but evolving ecosystem of consumer protection.

India has established multiple complaint and reporting systems for victims of fraud:

• National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal: Launched by the Ministry of Home Affairs, this platform allows victims to file complaints about cyber-enabled frauds, including scam calls. A dedicated helpline number, 1930, enables real-time reporting of financial frauds, giving banks and payment gateways a chance to intercept or freeze suspicious transactions. In 2022, the Ministry reported that over ₹100 crore was saved for victims through timely reporting in 1930.^[20]
  
• Banking Ombudsman and RBI’s Integrated Ombudsman Scheme: Victims of unauthorized debits or failed complaint resolutions can approach the Banking Ombudsman. The scheme, consolidated in 2021, provides a single-window grievance redressal system for customers across banks and NBFCs.
  
• Consumer Commissions under the Consumer Protection Act, 2019: Victims of misleading practices, including fake telemarketing or fraudulent offers, can seek remedies such as compensation and injunctions.

Banks are frontline actors in combating financial fraud arising from scam calls. Their measures include:

• Fraud Detection and Alerts: Banks increasingly use AI-driven fraud monitoring to detect unusual transaction patterns, such as sudden high-value transfers or multiple failed OTP attempts, and block them proactively.
  Transaction Reversal and Freezing of Funds: RBI’s 2017 circular on customer liability in unauthorized electronic transactions mandated zero liability for customers in cases where fraud occurs due to bank negligence, and limited liability if the customer reports promptly.^[21] These provisions have been used to refund victims of phishing and scam calls.
  
• Customer Awareness Campaigns: Many banks now conduct SMS and email campaigns warning customers not to share OTPs, PINs, or CVVs over calls. For instance, the State Bank of India (SBI) has repeatedly issued alerts on social media and via press releases, warning customers about “KYC update” scam calls that were on the rise in 2021–22.^[22]

 Telecom regulators and government agencies have also stepped up interventions:

• Department of Telecommunications (DoT): In May 2023, the DoT launched an AI-powered Sanchar Saathi portal, enabling users to check and block suspicious mobile connections registered in their name. Within weeks of launch, DoT reported deactivation of over 40 lakh fraudulent mobile connections linked to cybercrime.^[23]
  
• Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI): TRAI enforces the Telecom Commercial Communications Customer Preference Regulations (2018), requiring telemarketers to register and mandating blockchain-based systems to track commercial calls and SMS. In 2021, TRAI imposed penalties on access providers that failed to curb unsolicited commercial communications.^[24]
  
• Reserve Bank of India (RBI): Through its circulars and Master Directions, RBI sets consumer liability norms, mandates 24×7 helplines for fraud reporting, and directs banks to strengthen digital transaction monitoring. RBI has also partnered with the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C) to fast-track freezing of fraudulent transactions routed through scam calls.

Together, these institutional responses represent a layered defense—banks securing transactions, telecom authorities regulating networks, and government bodies offering redressal platforms. Yet, gaps remain: complaint resolution can be slow, inter-agency coordination is inconsistent, and scammers continue to exploit the time lag between fraud occurrence and institutional response.

Conclusion

Scam and spam calls have transformed from occasional annoyances into systemic threats, fuelled by data leaks, digital vulnerabilities, and organized fraud networks. The damage they cause is not confined to financial losses alone—victims often suffer stress, anxiety, and a lasting erosion of trust in essential services.

Addressing this challenge demands more than piecemeal measures. India needs stronger data protection laws to choke the supply of personal information at its source, greater consumer awareness to equip individuals against manipulation, and integrated support systems that bring together banks, telecom providers, regulators, and law enforcement into a coordinated shield. A framework that couples financial redress with psychological support will go a long way in reducing the long-term harm of fraud.

The point of contention is that the approach needs to be preventive, not reactive. Too often, safeguards are introduced only after the damage is done. Take for instance the familiar warnings like ‘don’t share your OTP’ or ‘banks never ask for your account details’ only become common after countless people have already been defrauded. By then, trust had been shaken and victims had suffered losses that could not always be recovered. What India needs to focus on is a system that would focus on anticipating risks and stopping them before they reach unsuspecting users.

^[1] Carole Cadwalladr and Emma Graham-Harrison, ‘The Cambridge Analytica Files’ The Guardian (London, 2018)https://www.theguardian.com/news/series/cambridge-analytica-files accessed 4 September 2025.

^[2] UC Browser, Truecaller under government scrutiny over data practices’ Economic Times (New Delhi, 5 July 2020) https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/tech/technology/uc-browser-truecaller-under-government-scrutiny-over-data-practices/articleshow/76787309.cms  accessed 4 September 2025.

^[3] Fake call centres busted for duping people across India’ Times of India (New Delhi, 23 July 2020) https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/delhi/fake-call-centres-busted-for-duping-people-across-india/articleshow/77117448.cms accessed 4 September 2025.

^[4] ‘Domino’s India data breach: 18 crore orders leaked online’ India Today (New Delhi, 20 May 2021) https://www.indiatoday.in/technology/news/story/domino-s-india-data-breach-18-crore-orders-leaked-online-1804695-2021-05-20 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[5] Rachna Khaira, ‘Rs 500, 10 minutes, and you have access to billion Aadhaar details’ The Tribune (Chandigarh, 4 January 2018) https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/archive/nation/rs-500-10-minutes-and-you-have-access-to-billion-aadhaar-details-523361 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[6] Federal Trade Commission, ‘Equifax Data Breach Settlement’ (FTC, 22 July 2019) https://www.ftc.gov/enforcement/cases-proceedings/refunds/equifax-data-breach-settlement accessed 4 September 2025.

^[7] MobiKwik denies data breach after details of 3.5 million users found on dark web’ The Hindu (Chennai, 26 March 2021) https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/technology/mobikwik-denies-data-breach-after-details-of-35-million-users-found-on-dark-web/article34188228.ece accessed 4 September 2025.

^[8] Richard Lloyd Parry, ‘Inside the Asian Scam Factory with Karaoke and a Torture Room’ (The Sunday Times, London, 5 January 2025) https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/inside-an-asian-scam-factory-with-karaoke-and-a-torture-room-gl7df83craccessed 4 September 2025.

^[9] Ellen Barry, ‘India Call-Center Scheme Exposed in IRS Phone Scam’ The New York Times (New Delhi, 6 October 2016)https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/07/world/asia/india-irs-phone-scam.html accessed 4 September 2025.

^[10] US Department of Justice, ‘80 Defendants Charged in Massive Conspiracy to Defraud Victims out of Millions’ (DOJ, 22 August 2019) https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/80-defendants-charged-massive-conspiracy-defraud-victims-out-millions accessed 4 September 2025.

^[11] Europol, ‘International operation takes down call centres responsible for defrauding victims across Europe’ (Europol, 11 May 2022) https://www.europol.europa.eu/media-press/newsroom/news/international-operation-takes-down-call-centres-responsible-defrauding-victims-across-europe accessed 4 September 2025.

^[12] Reserve Bank of India, ‘RBI cautions public against frauds using OTP/KYC update calls’ (RBI Press Release, 13 January 2022) https://www.rbi.org.in/scripts/BS_PressReleaseDisplay.aspx?prid=53162 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[13] ‘Delhi Police bust fake loan racket, 22 arrested’ The Hindu (New Delhi, 23 July 2021) https://www.thehindu.com/news/cities/Delhi/delhi-police-bust-fake-loan-racket-22-arrested/article35472125.ece accessed 4 September 2025.

^[14] Securities and Exchange Board of India, ‘SEBI cautions investors against unregistered investment advisors’ (SEBI Circular, 27 September 2022) https://www.sebi.gov.in/media/press-releases/sep-2022/sebi-cautions-investors-against-unregistered-investment-advisors_63273.html accessed 4 September 2025.

^[15] KBC lottery scam dupes thousands across India’ India Today (New Delhi, 14 March 2021) https://www.indiatoday.in/crime/story/kbc-lottery-scam-dupes-thousands-across-india-1778827-2021-03-14 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[16] Federal Trade Commission, ‘Prize, Sweepstakes, and Lottery Scams’ (FTC Consumer Advice, 2020) https://consumer.ftc.gov/articles/prize-sweepstakes-and-lottery-scams accessed 4 September 2025.

^[17] Ellen Barry, ‘India Call-Center Scheme Exposed in IRS Phone Scam’ The New York Times (New Delhi, 6 October 2016)https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/07/world/asia/india-irs-phone-scam.html accessed 4 September 2025.

^[18] ‘COVID-19 vaccine scam calls rise across India’ Times of India (Mumbai, 21 May 2021) https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/mumbai/covid-19-vaccine-scam-calls-rise-across-india/articleshow/82808152.cmsaccessed 4 September 2025.

^[19] ‘Cyber fraudsters pose as bank officials to trick customers’ Hindustan Times (Mumbai, 12 August 2020) https://www.hindustantimes.com/mumbai-news/cyber-fraudsters-pose-as-bank-officials-to-trick-customers/story-cwFAwW3R1kHqjjo6GZkOYN.html accessed 4 September 2025.

^[20] Ministry of Home Affairs, ‘Over ₹100 crore saved from cyber frauds through helpline 1930’ (Press Release, 21 December 2022) https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1885940 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[21] Reserve Bank of India, ‘Customer Protection – Limiting Liability of Customers in Unauthorised Electronic Banking Transactions’ (Circular DBR.No.Leg.BC.78/09.07.005/2017-18, 6 July 2017) https://rbidocs.rbi.org.in/rdocs/notification/PDFs/NT781DE49F466F0B41A086FCF7A7CF63FF1E.PDF accessed 4 September 2025.

^[22] State Bank of India, ‘Beware of fake calls asking for KYC update’ (Press Release, 12 August 2021) https://sbi.co.in/web/press-release accessed 4 September 2025.

^[23] Department of Telecommunications, ‘Sanchar Saathi Portal Launched’ (Press Information Bureau, 16 May 2023) https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1924087 accessed 4 September 2025.

^[24] Telecom Regulatory Authority of India, ‘TRAI imposes financial disincentives on Access Providers for failing to curb UCC’ (Press Release, 27 March 2021) https://trai.gov.in/sites/default/files/PR_No.24of2021.pdf accessed 4 September 2025.

Gauri Dua [Author]